Lesson 1: Introduction to Learning Sumerian
Everything You Need to Know to Star Learning Sumerian
WARNING: THIS IS THE LONGEST AND HARDEST LESSON!
BUT IT REALLY WILL TEACH YOU EVERYTHING YOU NEED TO KNOW TO LEARN SUMERIAN!
Lesson Introduction
Learning Sumerian can be difficult, but we’re going to simplify it as much as possible. In this lesson, we’ll cover all the fundamentals to get you ready to read Sumerian, including:
- The four major periods of Sumerian Language development
- Pronunciation of Sumerian vowels and consonants
- How to interpret cuneiform signs
- Common Sumerian language transliteration techniques
Helpful Terms
Here are some of the terms you’ll encounter in this lesson. Remember, you can always refer to and bookmark the Glossary of Terms, which can help you even when you’re learning Sumerian offsite.
determinative: an unpronounced word prefixed or suffixed to a noun to indicate a classification.
diacritic: a mark or symbol added to a letter to change its pronunciation or meaning.
glottal stop: a brief stop, gap, or catch in a sound, such as the pause in the word ‘uh-oh’.
transliteration: writing the sounds of one language using the characters or alphabet of another.
polyvalency: having more than one value, such as a sound or meaning.
Lesson Vocabulary
You Don't Need to Memorize Them!
Here are some of the vocabulary words you’ll encounter in this lesson. I’ve provided the most thorough definitions possible! You don’t need to memorize them right now. I just wanted to illustrate how each word can have multiple meanings and uses in a sentence.
a: 𒀀 n., water, fluid, semen, seed. part. suff., (-a) in, at, where, wherein, when (locative case marker); nominalizing suffix.
a-a: 𒀀𒀀 n., father.
ak: 𒀝 prep., suff., of (gen. case marker).
an: 𒀭 n., sky, heaven; n., prop., An (god of the celestial sky). part., inf., (-an-) 3rd person pronominal element.
apin: 𒀳 n., plow.
ba: 𒁀 part., pref., (ba-) conjugation prefix for agentless verbs; creates a finite (usually passive) verb.
diĝir: 𒀭 n., deity, god. part., det., determinative indicating a deity (abbr. d).
dumu: 𒌉 n., child, son, daughter.
e: 𒂊 (E) /e/ part., suff., (-e) by, with respect to, per, regarding [the agent] (ergative case marker).
eme: 𒅴 n., tongue, language, speech.
èn: 𒇷 n. time. prep., until.
eš: 𒂠 part., suff., suff., (-eš) by it (sg. (marû)), by them (pl. (hamţu)); (-eš/-še) to/toward (term. case marker), they/them (pl. (hamţu)), creates an adverb.
gal: 𒃲 adj., big, great.
gi7 (gir15, ĝir15): 𒂠 v., to be native, indigenous, local, domestic, domesticated; to be noble. adj., native, indigenous, local, domestic, domesticated; noble.
gir15 (gi7, ĝir15):: 𒂠 v., to be native, indigenous, local, domestic, domesticated; to be noble. adj., native, indigenous, local, domestic, domesticated; noble.
ĝir15 (gi7, ĝir15):: 𒂠 v., to be native, indigenous, local, domestic, domesticated; to be noble. adj., native, indigenous, local, domestic, domesticated; noble.
ĝu10: 𒈬 pron., suff., my, mine.
ḫuĝ: 𒂠 v., to pacify, abate; to hire, rent.
iri: 𒌷 n., city, town, village, district.
ki: 𒆠 n., earth, ground; area, location, place. part., suff., silent determinative indicating a location.
ki aĝ: 𒆠𒉘 v., to love, show affection.
lú: 𒇽 n., man, male; human being, person.
lugal: 𒈗 n., king; owner, master, lord.
me: 𒈨 v., I am, you are (en. cop.) (OS); they are (en. cop.) (NS).
mul: 𒀯 n., celestial body, star, planet, constellation, meteor; arrow. v., to (let) glow, to shine, to sparkle, to radiate [light or branches] to show. det., pref., determinative indicating class of celestial bodies.
na-me: 𒈾𒈨 pron., some, any, none.
dnanna: 𒀭𒋀𒆠 (DŠEŠ.KI) prop. n., Sumerian god of the Moon.
níĝ: 𒃻 n., thing; (a) matter; possession, property, treasure; valuables, assets. pron., something (ind.); which (rel.).
rá: 𒁺 v., to accompany; lead; bear; go; to stir, to mix; multiply.
sud(r): 𒋤 v., to be/make remote, far away, lasting; to stretch, elongate; adj., long.
šè: 𒂠 part., suff., to/toward, up to, until (term. case marker); they/them (pl. (hamţu)); creates an adverb.
šeš: 𒋀 n., brother.
tur: 𒌉 n., child; young (herd animals). adj., young, small, little.
zì(g): 𒍣 v., to rise, stand; to levy, raise, rouse, muster, recruit (zi-zi (marû)); to swell. adj., high.
zu: 𒍪 part., pron. suff., your(s) (abs., erg.).
The Four Major Phases of the Sumerian Language
Sumerian existed as a living language from the 4th millennium BCE to the end of the 2nd millennium BCE when Akkadian became the dominant language in the region. In other words, people actually spoke Sumerian for a full 2,000 years!
Even after it ceased to be a spoken language, it continued to be used for religious, scholarly, literary, and administrative writing right up until the common era—another 2,000 years!
Implications for Learning Sumerian
Consider how much the English language has changed in the last few centuries, let alone your lifetime! That Sumerian changed so little is absolutely mind-boggling!
Despite Sumerian remaining relatively in-tact over the millennia, changes did occur. Understanding when will help you date and translate your Sumerian texts, and generally make learning Sumerian easier!
POINT OF INTEREST: The importance placed on the Sumerian language by so many cultures makes you wonder: 1) by how many millennia does the Sumerian language predate the Sumerian people, and 2) what ancient knowledge is encoded in the cuneiform texts which has yet to be discovered or translated?
Time Period Abbreviations
Throughout this Sumerian grammar, I’ll refer to the significant time periods of linguistic changes in the Sumerian language by each period:
How to Pronounce Sumerian
One of the most important elements of learning Sumerian, and any language, is mastering pronunciation. Unfortunately, we don’t know with 100% certainty how Sumerian sounded, but we do have a good idea of how Akkadian sounded!
Fortunately, Akkadian scribes were kind enough to transcribe Sumerian using the consonants and vowels of their own language; a process called transliteration.
This is great… until you consider the Sumerian language had sounds Akkadian did not. For example, Akkadians didn’t differentiate between the /g/ and /k/ sound. To them, it all sounded like a /k/. Thus, in some cases, we can only take our best guess as to what Sumerian sounded like.
Pronouncing Sumerian Vowels
While some scholars believe Sumerian had an /o/ vowel (myself included), the evidence is limited. For the sake of simplicity, we’ll be using the four generally accepted Sumerian vowel-sounds, which are pronounced accordingly:
/a/ like the /a/ in the ‘father’.
/e/ like the /e/ in the ‘whey’
/i/ like the /e/ in ‘me’
/u/ like the /oo/ in ‘boot’
Pronouncing Sumerian Consonants
Standard English Characters
For the most part, Sumerian is transliterated using characters in the English alphabet. In these cases, the letters are likely pronounced similarly to their English equivalent:
/b/ like the /b/ in ‘boy’
/d/ like the /d/ in ‘dog’
/g/ like the /g/ in ‘girl’
/k/ like the /k/ in ‘kid’
/l/ like the /l/ in ‘lip’ (may have sometimes been palatalized)
/m/ like the /m/ in ‘man’
/n/ like the /n/ ‘no’ (may have sometimes been palatalized)
/p/ like the /p/ in ‘peak’
/s/ like the /s/ in ‘yes’
/t/ like the /t/ in ‘tip’
/z/ like /z/ in ‘zebra’ (some have suggested /ts/ as in ‘blitz’ or /dz/ in ‘lids’)
Characters and Sounds You Might Be Unfamiliar With
While learning Sumerian, there are a few consonants and sounds you’ll encounter which you may be unfamiliar with.
Special Characters—Sounds You Know
While they may look strange, the following characters are used to make sounds quite familiar to the English speaker:
/ř/ isn’t common in transliteration, but if you do encounter it, it most likely sounds like
the /ts/ is ‘bits’
the /dr/ in the Spanish ‘madre’
/š/ like /sh/ is in ‘ship’
/ĝ/ may sound like the /ng/ in ‘bring’, and it might not (see the section on /ĝ/ below)
Special Characters—Sounds You Might Not Know
For most English speakers, these characters and sounds might look and sound strange:
/ḫ/ like the /ch/ in the German ‘Bach’ (often appears as a standard /h/ in transliteration, despite its guttural pronunciation)
/r/ like the /r/ in the Spanish ‘pero’ or ‘perro’ (never like the English /r/)
/ĝ/ like the /r/ in the French pronunciation of ‘Paris’ (see my argument for this in the second on /ĝ/ below)
Akkadian Sounds and Consonants You Might Encounter
When reading transliterated texts, especially from later periods, you’ll often come across the following characters which are used to transliterate Akkadian words.
/j/ a diphthong or semi-glide, like the /y/ in ‘hey’ (it sometimes appears as /y/, but either way, you won’t see it too often)
/q/ is an emphatic or guttural /k/
/ṣ/ is a slightly palatalized /s/ (make an English /s/ sound, but with your tongue slightly farther back on the roof of your mouth)
/ṭ/ an emphatic or ejective stop /t/
The Glottal Stop /ɂ/
In all likelihood, all Sumerian words originally started with a consonant (CV or CVC = Consonant-Vowel/Consonant-Vowel-Consonant).
We don’t know for certain if that first ‘consonant’ was an /h/ as in the English ‘house’, or a glottal stop /ɂ/ as in the pause between the English ‘uh-oh’. However, the glottal stop is, in my opinion, the most likely.
The glottal stop /ɂ/ is especially evident:
- before /ab/, /àm/, /an/, and /íb/
- between /a/ and /a/—ex. a-a: father = ɂa-ɂa
- before the locative case marker -a—ex. é-a: in the house = é-ɂa
- before the nominalizing suffix -a—ex. ki áĝ-ɂa: beloved = ki áĝ-ɂa or ki ɂaĝ-ɂa
Again, nobody knows for sure when, where, or how glottal stops were used. While learning Sumerian, feel free to use or ignore them as you see fit!
Pronouncing the Consonant /ĝ/
The current consensus is that /ĝ/ should be pronounced like the /ng/ in ‘bring’. The reason for this is that the Akkadians transliterated this sound as /n/, /g/, /m/, /ng/ or /mg/. More specifically, they tended to transliterate /ĝ/:
- as /g/ or /k/ when /ĝ/ was the first sound of the word: ĝir became gir
- as /n/ when /ĝ/ was the final sound in a word: ḫuĝ became ḫun
- and as /ng/ or /mg/ when /ĝ/ was in the middle of the word: diĝir became *dingir
NOTE: Be aware that older literature doesn’t use the /ĝ/ character at all, and you may come across a /g/, /k/, /n/, /ng/ or /mg/ instead of the correct /ĝ/.
FUN FACT: Do to early transliteration issues, Zecharia Sitchin misunderstood diĝir to be a compound word din-gir; evidence that he didn’t speak Sumerian as claimed.
My Argument for /ĝ/ as /ġ/
The reason why Akkadians transliterated /ĝ/ as /n/, /g/, and /m/ is because the Akkadian language did not have an equivalent sound.
The fact that they used three consonants and combinations thereof leads me to believe that the Sumerian /ĝ/ sound was well outside of their phonological capability.
However, there is sound which is close to /n/, /g/, and /ng/, which I believe is just as likely to be the correct pronunciation.
To create this sound:
- say the word ‘bring’ and hold the /ng/ sound
- slide the back of your tongue to the back of your throat
- just barely remove your tongue from your throat so that air can pass through.
The sound you just made is best described as /ʁ/ (voiced uvular fricative), as in the French /r/, or /ġ/ (also written /ɣ/) (voiced velar fricative) as in the Arabic/Persian letter غ (ġayn).
In other words, a /gh/ or guttural /g/ without the hard stop.
I propose that depending on its placement in a word, this consonant may have ranged between the nasal /ng/ and the uvular/velar fricative /ġ/.
In other words:
- as /ġ/ when /ĝ/ is found at the beginning of the word: ĝir (gh/ir)
- as /ng/ when /ĝ/ is found at the end of the word: ḫuĝ (hu/ng)
- as a combined /ng+gh/ sound when /ĝ/ is found in the middle of the word; diĝir (di/ng/ghir)
It’s worth noting that while Sumerian is still considered a language isolate; that is, it’s not believed to be related to any other known language, the /ġ/ sound is present in the Canaanite, Hebrew, Aramaic, Southern Arabian, and Ethiopian languages. I don’t think it’s a stretch to suppose the language of the inhabitants of ancient Iraq might have possessed a similar sound.
You Get to Decide How to Pronounce /ĝ/
The fact is, no one knows for sure how /ĝ/ was pronounced in Sumerian. For all we know, it was a palatalized /n/. While learning Sumerian, if you’d prefer to avoid debate with your fellow Sumerian linguists, pronounce /ĝ/ as /ng/.
A Few Things Worth Noting
Consonant Swapping
Because what we know about the Sumerian language has been filtered through Akkadian scribes and modern translators, some confusion is to be expected.
While learning Sumerian, be aware that the following consonants were often swapped out for one another:
/b/ and /p/
/d/ and /t/
/d/ and /ṭ/
/g/ and /k/
/g/ and /q/
/ĝ/ and /n/
/ĝ/ and /g/
/ĝ/ and /k/
/ĝ/ and /m/
/ĝ/ and /ng/
/r/ and /ř/
/s/ and /š/
/s/ and /ṣ/
/z/ and /s/
/z/ and /ṣ/
/m/ and /n/
Syllable Emphasis
Some have speculated that syllable emphasis played a role in Sumerian, possibly changing the pronunciation of the vowel, but the debate is ongoing.
Personally, I find emphasizing the last syllable of the root to be the most natural, but while learning Sumerian, feel free to experiment on your own.
Sumerian Transliteration
Polyvalency—Multiple Ways to Interpret a Cuneiform Word-Sign
The Sumerian language wasn’t actually called “Sumerian”. It was called 𒅴𒂠. This is useless information if you can’t read the cuneiform signs 𒅴 and 𒂠. In order to read them, we first need to transliterate them; that is, we need to write out the sounds each sign makes.
𒅴 is the EME-sign. It is read eme, and translates as language or tongue.
𒂠 is the ÉŠ-sign, and it can be read multiple ways. This phenomenon is called polyvalency, and it’s an important part of learning Sumerian.
ÉŠ Can Be Read /eš/ and /šè/
ÉŠ is often read /eš/ or /šè/ when suffixed to a word as one of the following:
eš as the 3rd person plural copula suffix:
- šeš-me-eš: they are brothers (lit. brother-are-they) (šeš mēš)
eš/-šè as an adverbial suffix:
- gal-le-eš: well, greatly (lit. great/big-ly) (gal.ēš)
- sud-rá-šè: distantly (lit. distance-ly)
šè as a postposition:
- iri-šè: to the city (lit. [the] city-to)
- èn-šè: how long? (lit. time-to/until)
šè as a demonstrative pronoun:
- lú-šè: that man (over there by you) (lit. man-that)
šè as a comparative:
- é-zu-šè: than your house (lit. house-your-than)
ÉŠ Can Be Read /ḫuĝ/
In Old Babylonian and Neo-Assyrian periods, the ÉŠ-sign was also read /ḫuĝ/ and /ḫuṅ/ which could mean either to pacify, or to hire.
lú-ḫuĝ-ĝa: the hired man {lú + ḫuĝ + a} (lu ḫuĝ.a)
ÉŠ Can Be Read /gi7/, /gir15/ or /ĝir15/
The ÉŠ-sign can also be read /gi7/ and /gir15/ or /ĝir15/. Depending on the context of the sentence, it can mean: native, local, domestic, or noble.
lú-ĝir: [a] noble/local man (lit. man-noble/local)
Translating the Cuneiform EME.ÉŠ
Considering this, 𒅴𒂠 EME.ÉŠ, could be read in one of the following ways:
eme-šè or eme-éš: to/toward [the] tongue.
eme ḫuĝ: tongue pacify/hire (nonsensical)
eme-ĝir: native tongue, which is the correct variation in this context!
Diacritics
Because each cuneiform sign can be read multiple ways, you’ll often see numbers after the last letter of the word (in subscript), indicating how the sign is supposed to be read (ÉŠ = EŠ2).
However, in this Sumerian grammar and others, the first three readings of the words will not have an accompanying number. Instead, they’ll be left unmarked, or have a forward-facing or back-facing accent mark for readings 1, 2, and 3 respectively. All successive readings will be marked with a subscript number.
/a1/ will be written /a/
/a2/ will be written /á/
/a3/ will be written /à/
/a4/ will be written /a4/ etc.
NOTE: This technique is used simply to make transliteration and learning Sumerian easier, and has nothing to do with pronunciation.
Differentiating Between Sumerian and Akkadian
One of the reasons Sumerian remained in use for so long was due to its adoption by the Akkadians. In fact, we owe our translations of the cuneiform script to Akkadian scribes who meticulously translated their own texts into Sumerian.
Because of the close association, many Akkadian words made their way into cuneiform documents.
Generally speaking, when learning Sumerian with this and many other Sumerian grammars:
- Akkadian words will be lowercase and italicized
- Sumerian words will lowercase and sometimes boldface, except in non-Sumerian texts where it is usually in uppercase—Example from SAA 03 025 (State Archives of Assyria) mAN.ŠÁR—⸢DÙ—DUMU.UŠ⸣ [LUGAL kib-ra-a-ti]
- Sumerian words whose values are unknown or uncertain will be in uppercase (ex. KA-ĝu10: my body part (/KA/ is in uppercase due to uncertainty of the body part).
Use of Hyphens and Periods
Compound Sumerian signs are written in ALL CAPS and separated by periods (ex. EME.ÉŠ)
Transliterated Sumerian uses hyphens to connect:
- proper nouns and nominal compounds: an-ki earth and heaven, the universe
- nouns and adjectives: dumu-tur: young son (not all grammars follow this rule)
- nouns and case elements: lugal-e: by the king
- elements within the verbal chain: ba-an-zi-ge-eš: he/she made them to stand (bā.n.zig.ēš)
At times, when demonstrating pronunciation, I may:
- Forgo the use of hyphens: níĝ na-me: some/any/no thing (níĝ name)
- Show reduction with periods: lugal-la: [the] king’s (lit. [the] king-of) (lugal.a)
- Simplify successive vowels with a line: ba-an-zi: he/she made to stand (bā.n.zi)
Determinatives
In cuneiform writing, Sumerian words sometimes have a silent determinative prefixed or suffixed to the word. For example, the word mul, which means star, is prefixed to the names of planets, stars, and constellations to indicate its nature as a celestial body (ex. mulapin: the Plow Star.)
While learning Sumerian, keep in mind that in a few cases, the determinative is abbreviated, such as in the determinative diĝir, indicating that the ensuing word is the name of a deity (ex. dnanna: (the god) Nanna).
Additional Symbols You'll Encounter While Learning Sumerian
Throughout this grammar and others, you’ll come across the following symbols while learning Sumerian:
√—indicates the root verb
C—indicates a consonant
V—indicates a vowel
x—indicates no generally accepted value exists
Ø—indicates the zero ending/morph of the absolutive case.
{ }—demonstrates a grammatical construction
[ ]—indicates missing or damaged text
< >—indicates text believed to have been omitted by scribes
<< >>—indicates text erroneously omitted in modern times
Lesson One Summary
I know that was a lot for your first lesson, but understanding these concepts will make everything so much easier going forward.
To summarize, in this lesson, we learned:
The Major Sumerian Language Periods
How to Pronounce Sumerian (and Some Akkadian)
/a/ like the /a/ in the ‘father’.
/b/ like the /b/ in ‘boy’
/d/ like the /d/ in ‘dog’
/e/ like the /e/ in the ‘whey’
/g/ like the /g/ in ‘girl’
/ĝ/ may sound like the /ng/ in ‘bring’, like French /r/, or Arabic/Persian /ġ/
/ḫ/ like the /ch/ in the German ‘Bach’ (often appears as a standard /h/ in transliteration, despite its guttural pronunciation)
/i/ like the /e/ in ‘me’
/j/ sometime appears in place of a diphthong or semi-glide, like the /y/ in ‘hey’
/k/ like the /k/ in ‘kid’
/l/ like the /l/ in ‘lip’ (may have sometimes been palatalized)
/m/ like the /m/ in ‘man’
/n/ like the /n/ ‘no’ (may have sometimes been palatalized)
/p/ like the /p/ in ‘peak’
/q/ is an emphatic or guttural /kh/
/r/ like the /r/ in the Spanish ‘pero’ or ‘perro’ (never like the English /r/)
/ř/ isn’t common in transliteration, but if you do encounter it, it most likely sounds like the /ts/ is ‘bits’ the /dr/ in the Spanish ‘madre’
/s/ like the /s/ in ‘yes’
/š/ like /sh/ is in ‘ship’
/ṣ/ is a slightly palletized /s/ (make an English /s/ sound, but with your tongue slightly further back on the roof of your mouth)
/t/ like the /t/ in ‘tip’
/ṭ/ an emphatic or ejective stop /th/
/u/ like the /oo/ in ‘boot’
/z/ like /z/ in ‘zebra’ (some have suggested /ts/ as in ‘blitz’ or /dz/ in ‘lids’)
/ɂ/ glottal stop
Cuneiform Signs Can Have Multiple Values
𒅴 EME-sign: n., tongue, language; speech; plow’s share.
𒂠 ÉŠ-sign /eš/, /éš/, /šè/: v., to anoint. pron. suff., (-eš) by it (sg. (marû)); by them (pl. (hamţu)). part., (-eš/-še) to/toward (terminative case marker); creates an adverb.
𒂠 ḪUĜ /ḫuĝ/: v., to pacify, abate; to hire, rent; to introduce; to rest.
𒂠 ĜIR15 /ĝir15/, /gir15/, /gi/: v., to be native, indigenous, local, domestic, domesticated; to be noble. adj., native, indigenous, local, domestic, domesticated; noble.
Exercises
Complete the exercises using information and vocabulary from this lesson.
True or False
- An accent mark over a vowel sign changes its pronunciation.
- Cuneiform signs can be interpreted multiple ways.
- In transliteration, Sumerian words are normally italicized.
Fill in the Blank
English: They are brothers.
Sumerian: šeš-__-eš:
- zu
- šè
- me
- an
- lú
Translate Sumerian into English
- é-ĝu10
- a-a-zu
- an-ki-a
- dumu lugal-la
Translate English into Sumerian
- my king
- in the house
- by the man
Spot the Mistake
- diĝir-nanna
- tur-dumu
- apinmul
Translate Cuneiform
- 𒅴
- 𒂠
Multiple Choice
Which of the options is a correct reading of the 𒂠sign:
- eme
- eš
- none of the above
Answer Key
True or False
- An accent mark over a vowel sign changes its pronunciation.
- FALSE—Accent marks over the vowels are simply to make transliteration easier.
- Cuneiform signs can be interpreted multiple ways.
- TRUE—Cuneiform sings can have multiple values, including meanings and readings.
- In transliteration, Sumerian words are normally italicized.
- FALSE—Akkadian words are normally italicized; not Sumerian.
Fill in the Blank
The correct answer was:
3) me
šeš-me-eš: they are brothers
Translate Sumerian into English
- é-ĝu10: my house
- a-a-zu: your father
- an-ki-a: on heaven and earth
- dumu lugal-la: son of the king
Translate English into Sumerian
- my king: lugal-ĝu10
- in the house: é-a
- by the man: lú-e
Spot the Mistake
- diĝir-nanna: diĝir is a determinative and should be prefixed in superscript, and possibly abbreviated (diĝirnanna or dnanna)
- tur-dumu: the adjective is suffixed to the noun (dumu-tur)
- apinmul: the determinative mul comes before apin (mulapin)
Translate Cuneiform
- 𒅴 = eme
- 𒂠= eš or šè
Multiple Choice
The correct reading of the 𒂠sign is
2) eš
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God, you ve done it so great… Please, keep going! That’s a brilliant introduction)
Thank you so much!! That really means a lot to me <3
This is really good. Only one thing: the cuneiform signs do not appear on this page.
Hi, Christine! I’ve tried all the pages with cuneiform out on multiple browsers and devices, and their showing up on my end. When you go to the Wikipedia Cuneiform Unicode page, are you able to see them there? https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuneiform_(Unicode_block) ?